Digital Electronics and Computer Organization

Number systems: binary, octal, decimal, hexadecimal, base conversions, complements (1's, 2's, 9's, 10's), binary arithmetic, signed number representations (sign-magnitude, 1's and 2's complement), overflow conditions. Binary codes: BCD, Gray code, ASCII, parity bits, Hamming codes. Boolean algebra: axioms and theorems, switching algebra, logic gates and their realization, truth tables, canonical forms, minterms and maxterms. Logic simplification using Boolean algebra and Karnaugh maps (up to 5 variables), don't care conditions, NAND-NAND and NOR-NOR networks. Quine-McClusky's Algorithm. Combinational hazards, static-1 and static-0 hazards, hazard-free realization.

Design and implementation of: adders (half, full, carry lookahead), subtractors, comparators, encoders, decoders, priority encoders, multiplexers, demultiplexers. Function realization using MUX, DEMUX, and ROM. Design of arithmetic circuits: 4-bit adders/subtractors, BCD adders. Magnitude comparator, code converters, parity generator/checker. Use of standard ICs and programmable logic devices (PLA, PAL — basic introduction). Binary multipliers: combinational array multiplier. Introduction to Verilog-based truth-table and logic-level modeling.

Bistable elements: latches (SR, D), flip-flops (SR, D, JK, T — level and edge-triggered), characteristic equations, excitation tables, timing diagrams. Flip-flop timing: setup, hold, propagation delay, metastability. Counters: asynchronous, synchronous, up-down, modulus-n, Johnson, ring counters. Shift registers and bidirectional shift registers. Sequential design methodology using state diagrams, Moore and Mealy machines, state reduction. Design of synchronous sequential circuits, up/down and modulus counters, shift registers, Ring counter, Johnson counter, timing diagram, serial adder, sequence detector, Design of sequence detectors, control logic with FSMs. Classification of memories: ROM, RAM, static and dynamic RAM, memory cell design concepts, memory timing, address decoding logic.

Functional components of a digital computer: control unit, ALU, registers, memory, and interconnect. Instruction cycle: fetch, decode, execute. Register transfer language (RTL), micro-operations, and control signals. Control unit design: hardwired control logic (detailed), microprogramming (basic concepts only). Introduction to bus structures, memory read/write sequences. Addressing modes: immediate, direct, indirect, register, indexed. I/O mechanisms: program-controlled, interrupt-driven, DMA overview. Basic instruction format and design: 1- address, 2-address, 3-address machine. Conceptual design of a simple accumulator-based computer..